High-Leverage Practices Glossary
| Term | Definition | Resource |
|---|---|---|
| Academic learning time | “Allocated time in a subject-matter area (physical education, science, or mathematics, for example) in which a student is engaged successfully in the activities or with the materials to which he or she is exposed, and in which those activities and materials are related to educational outcomes that are valued. | EduTechWiki (2007) |
| Accommodations | An accommodation is a tool, strategy, or support that allows students to access the general education curriculum. This allows students to engage with the grade level curriculum and demonstrate their knowledge and mastery of the learned skills and content. | The IRIS Center (2004a); Understood.org (n.d.) |
| Assistive technology | “Any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with a disability.” | IDEA, 20 U.S.C. § 1401(1) |
| Auditory processing disorder | A disorder related to how the central nervous system uses auditory information; it is not the result of other higher-order cognitive, language, or related disorder. | The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA; n.d.) |
| Augmentative and alternative communication systems (AAC) | Alternative methods of communication, which may include communication boards, communication books, sign language, and computerized voices, used by individuals unable to communicate readily through speech. | The American Speech-Language- Hearing Association (ASHA; n.d.) |
| Baseline | A starting point to measure a student's growth. The score received on a measure before any instruction or intervention begins. | Hosp et al. (2016) |
| Benchmark | “A typical or expected performance level in a given skill (e.g., reading) that serves as a general indicator of a student’s overall progress.” | The IRIS Center (n.d.) |
| Collaboration | “A style for direct interaction between at least two coequal parties voluntarily engaged in shared decision making as they work toward a common goal.” “In educational settings this typically includes jointly “planning, implementing, or evaluating a specific aspect of an educational program for a student or group of students.” | Friend & Cook (2017, p. 5); The IRIS Moduel (2007, p. 3); Friend & Cook (2017); Friend et al., (2010); The IRIS Center (2004b) |
| Comprehensive learner profile | "Provides information about a students’ academic, social and emotional, functional and motivation strengths and needs as a means of establishing how a student learns best (i.e., how the student gathers, processes, and applies information). Includes information about a students’ interests, culture, and language. Teachers use the comprehensive learner profile to craft a robust IEP. In developing the profile, teachers collect and analyze a variety of both summative and formative data gathered from a variety of sources including teachers, administrators, parents, related service providers, and community stakeholders." | Inclusive Education Planning Tool (2011); National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (2010) |
| Content enhancements | Strategies to augment the organization and delivery of curriculum content so that students can better access, interact with, understand, and retain information. | Deshler et al. (2001) |
| Cooperative learning | "Instructional arrangement in which heterogeneous (mixed ability) groups are employed as a method of maximizing the learning of everyone in those groups; also helps students to develop social skills and has been demonstrated to yield especially favorable results for students in at-risk groups, such as those with learning disabilities." | The IRIS Center ( n.d.) |
| Corrective feedback | Constructive comments provided as soon as possible following the implementation of an activity in order to help an individual improve his or her performance. | Archer & Hughes (2011) |
| Co-teaching | “The partnering of a general education teacher and a special education teacher or another specialist for the purpose of jointly delivering instruction to a diverse group of students, including those with disabilities, or other special needs, in a general education setting and in a way that flexibly and deliberately meets their learning needs.” | Friend et al. (2010, p. 11) |
| Criterion-referenced tests | These assessments compare student performance to a standard for a specific skill. | Hosp et al.(2016); High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Chapter 1) |
| Cultural broker | "A person with an understanding of multiple cultures who can mediate between groups of people from differing cultural backgrounds, can also help prepare educators for meetings (e.g., provide important information about cultural norms) with families and reduce conflict that may emerge from intersectional differences." | High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Chapter 4) |
| Culturally inclusive pedagogies and practices (CIPP) | "Culturally inclusive pedagogies and practices (CIPP) are those theories and practices that have centered multiple layers of sociocultural diversity and understanding in the educational sphere. That is, considering the wholeness of context, content, and constructs (e.g., people, resources, environments, etc.) that intersect and interact in the education space and influence life-centered outcomes. CIPP challenges deficit-based understandings of disability, “presumes competence” (Biklen & Burke, 2006), and interrogates intersectional oppressions." | Biklen & Burke (2006) High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Introduction) |
| Culturally relevant | "Addresses student achievement [and] also helps students to accept and affirm their cultural identity while developing critical perspectives that challenge inequities.” | Ladson-Billings (1995, p. 469) |
| Culturally responsive | “Filters curriculum content and teaching strategies through their cultural frames of reference to make the content more personally meaningful and easier to master. …because it makes explicit the previously implicit role of culture in teaching and learning." | Gay (2018, p. 32) |
| Culturally sustaining | “Supporting multilingualism and multiculturalism in practice and perspective for students and educators…to perpetuate and foster—to sustain—linguistic, literate, and cultural pluralism as part of the democratic project of schooling.” | Paris (2012, p. 95) |
| Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) | "A type of progress monitoring conducted on a regular basis to assess student performance throughout an entire year’s curriculum; teachers can use CBM to evaluate not only student progress but also the effectiveness of their instructional methods.” | The IRIS Center (n.d.) |
| Data-based individualization | The process of gradually individualizing and intensifying interventions through the systematic use of assessment data, validated interventions, and research- based adaptation strategies. | National Center on Intensive Intervention (2013) |
| Differentiated instruction | “An approach whereby teachers adjust their curriculum and instruction to maximize the learning of all students (e.g., typical learners, English language learners, struggling students, students with learning disabilities, gifted and talented students); not a single strategy but rather a framework that teachers can use to implement a variety of evidence-?based strategies.” | The IRIS Center (2010a, p. 1) |
| Disproportionality | The over- or underrepresentation “of racially, culturally, ethnically, or linguistically diverse groups of students in special education, restrictive learning environments, or school disciplinary actions (e.g., suspensions and expulsions), compared to other groups.” | Center on Response to Intervention (2014) |
| Embedded high-leverage practices | Embedded high-leverage practices within this text support the implementation of pillar or essential high-leverage practices for educators. | High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Preface) |
| Emerging bilingual | Students who speak a language other than English and are in the process of developing linguistic competencies in both languages with the support of their communities (e.g., parents, school, community). | Butvilofsky et al. (2017) |
| Evidence-based practice | An important component of evidence-based education is instructional practices shown to improve outcomes for specific populations of learners by multiple, high-quality experimental studies (Cook et al., 2020). We often refer to these as evidence-based practices or EBPs. Various educational organizations (e.g., WWC, CEC) have developed standards for identifying the amount of evidence from rigorous and methodologically sound studies needed for an educational practice to be labeled as an EBP. | Kennedy et al. (2020) |
| Explicit instruction | Instructional approach in which teachers clearly identify the expectations for learning, highlight important details of the concept or skill, offer precise instruction, and connect new learning to earlier lessons and materials. | Archer & Hughes (2011) |
| Fidelity of implementation | "Implementation of an intervention, program, or curriculum according to research findings and/or on developers’ specifications." | RTI Action Network (n.d.) |
| Flexible grouping | "The ability for students to move among different groups based upon their performance and instructional needs." | RTI Action Network (n.d.) |
| Formative assessment | "Formative assessments are formal and informal methods for collecting data for the purpose of improving instruction. These should be brief and occur during and/or immediately following all lessons." | Alber-Morgan et al. (2022, p. 164) |
| Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) | A systematic approach to address a student’s specific behavior to identify the behavior’s function using informal and formal methods of observation. Following the FBA, the IEP team develops an individual behavior support plan. | Behavioradvisor.com (n.d.) |
| Generalization | Performing a behavior or task in environments that differ from the behavior or task was originally learned. | Lee & Axelrod (2005) |
| Grade level equivalent | Grade-level equivalent scores are determined by giving a test that is developed for a particular grade to students in other grades. | Eissenberg & Rudner (1988) |
| Graphic organizer | "A visual aid designed to help students organize and comprehend substantial amounts of text and content information." | The IRIS Center (2012, p. 11) |
| Guided notes | “A strategic note-taking method in which teachers provide their students an outline containing the main ideas and related concepts in order to help guide the students through a lecture.” | The IRIS Center (n.d.) |
| Guided practice | "A method of practice that involves working with students on activities that focus on a previously modeled or taught skill." | IRIS Center (n.d.) |
| Heterogeneous grouping | To place students of varying abilities (i.e., lower achieving, typically achieving, higher achieving) together in a small instructional group. | Lewis (2016a) |
| High-leverage practices | Windschitl and colleagues (2012) defined HLPs as “a set of practices that are fundamental to support K-12 student learning, and that can be taught, learned, and implemented by those entering the profession” (p. 880). The focus was to equip educators with specific practices they could use in the classroom by building their knowledge and skill in applied domains (Grossman et al., 2009). | McLeskey et al. (2017) |
| Homogeneous grouping | To place students of similar abilities together into groups; can be used by teachers to provide more intensive instruction to students who are working at a similar level and who can benefit from instruction that is designed for their specific learning needs. | Lewis (2016b) |
| Individual behavior support plan | A plan developed following a functional behavior assessment to specify how the pro-social behavior will be taught and any modifications to the classroom and other environments needed to reinforce the appropriate behavior. | Loman et al.(2013) |
| Individualized family services plan (IFSP) | A means of providing early intervention services for children with developmental delays or disabilities, from birth through age 3. The IFSP is based on an in-depth assessment of the child’s needs and includes information on the child’s level of development in all areas, outcomes for the child and family, and services the child and family will receive. | PACER Center (2011) |
| Individual education program (IEP) | “A written statement for the child with a disability that is developed, reviewed, and revised in a meeting in accordance with federal law and regulations. The IEP must include a statement of the child’s present levels of academic achievement and functional performance, a statement of measurable annual academic and functional goals to meet the child’s needs and enable the child to make progress in the general education curriculum." | IDEA regulations, 34 C.F.R. § 300.320– 300.324 See U.S. Department of Education (2006) |
| Instructional technology | “Any device or instrument that exists in a classroom and that teachers use for the purpose of day-to-day instruction; such devices, when assigned to an individual student through an IEP, are known as assistive technology.” | The IRIS Center (n.d.). |
| Intensive instruction | Additional instruction designed to support and reinforce classroom skills characterized by increased intensity and individualization based on data. | The IRIS Center (2015, p. 1) |
| Intersectionality | "A framework that interrogates the layered experiences of folx who are more likely to experience simultaneous macro- and micro- “interlocking oppressions." | Collins (2012); High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Chapter 2) |
| Keyword method | A mnemonic strategy in which students use a keyword and a related sentence or image to help them to remember new information. | Mastropieri et.al. (1985) |
| Maintenance | In behavior assessment, term used to describe the extent to which a student’s behavior is self-sustaining over time. | Potterfield (2009– 2013) |
| Meta-analysis | Method of reviewing research on a given practice or program in which a systematic and reproducible literature search is conducted, specific criteria are used for including research studies in the analysis, and the combined statistical results of these studies yield an effect size for the practice or program across the studies reviewed. | Israel & Richter (2017) |
| Metacognition | The processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one’s understanding and performance. | Chick (2017) |
| Microcultures | Microcultures are personal identity and related characteristics that intersect to inform the ways in which we perceive and understand ourselves and others (Gollnick & Chinn, 2017). | Gollnick & Chinn (2017); High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Chapter 4) |
| Mnemonics | A learning strategy in which a verbal device is employed to help promote the memorization of names or other information. | The IRIS Center (n.d.) |
| Modifications | A modification is a change to the curriculum or instruction that alters what students are expected to learn and master. Modifications should occur after appropriate accommodations have been considered and documentation from assessments indicate changes to the content and curriculum are required for the student to progress toward the general education standards. | Understood.org (n.d.) The IRIS Center (2004a) |
| Multitiered system of supports (MTSS) | "A multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS) is a proactive and preventative framework that integrates data and instruction to maximize student achievement and support students social, emotional, and behavior needs from a strengths-based perspective. MTSS offers a framework for educators to engage in data-based decision making related to program improvement, high-quality instruction and intervention, social and emotional learning, and positive behavioral supports necessary to ensure positive outcomes for districts, schools, teachers, and students." | Center on Multitiered System of Supports (n.d.) |
| Norm-referenced assessment | “A standardized assessment tool that compares a student’s test scores to the average score of a representative group.” | The IRIS Center (n.d.) |
| Paraeducators | "Paraeducators work in general education and special education classrooms, nonclassroom school settings (e.g., cafeteria, playground), and community-based learning sites supporting an entire classroom of students or individual students with disabilities. Paraeducators provide individualized services to students with disabilities through a range of tasks directed by the instructional team consisting of licensed professionals responsible for planning and implementing specially designed services for students with disabilities." | Council for Exceptional Children (2022) |
| Peer tutoring | A cooperative learning strategy that pairs a student with disabilities with a typically developing student; either student may adopt the role of teacher or learner. | The IRIS Center (2010b, p. 7) |
| Pillar practices | "Pillar practices (within this text) are the most essential high-leverage practices for educators to master and implement." | High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Preface) |
| Progress monitoring | The process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and acting upon data to assess a student’s performance and improvement in response to intervention. Progress monitoring allows teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions adjust instruction to meet students’ needs. Progress monitoring can be implemented with individual students or groups of students (e.g., whole class). | Center on Response to Intervention (2014); The IRIS Center (2004b, p. 1); Stockall et al. (2014) |
| Randomized control trials | A research design where participants are randomally assigned to groups in which they may or may not receive the intervention. This research method produces the best evidence of causality. | Cook & Cook (2016) |
| Reflexivity | Reflexivity involves individuals critically examining the influence of their thoughts, attitudes, assumptions, habits, and biases. | Bolton (2010); High-Leverage Practices for Students with Disabilities (Chapter 4) |
| Scaffolding instruction | “A process through which a teacher adds supports for students to enhance learning and aid in the mastery of tasks. The teacher does this by systematically building on students’ experiences and knowledge as they are learning new skills.” | The IRIS Center (2005, p. 1) |
| Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD) | A scientifically validated framework for explicitly teaching academic strategies that incorporates steps critical to a student’s ability to effectively use those strategies. | The IRIS Center (2008, p. 3) |
| Self-regulation | “A person’s ability to regulate his or her own behavior." | The IRIS Center (n.d.) |
| Special education process |
The activities that occur from the time a child is referred for evaluation through being identified with a disability and provided with special education services via an IEP. These activities include request for an evaluation, a multidisciplinary evaluation, eligibility determination, and the development of the IEP. Families of students who are being evaluated must be informed of all activities and have opportunities to participate in meetings and decisions about their child. |
Center for Parent Information and Resources (2014); PACER Center (2006) |
| Specially designed instruction |
In practical terms, specially designed instruction (SDI) is instruction that is tailored to a particular student. It addresses their Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals; accounts for their disability; provides modifications or adaptations to content; and encourages access to the general education curriculum. |
Council for Exceptional Children (n.d.) |
| Specialized instructional support personnel | Personnel offer specialized skills (e.g., speech and language therapy, counseling) and provide vital support for students with disabilities across a variety of settings. | National Education Association (n.d.) |
| Strategy instruction | Instruction designed to teach students the elements or steps for implementing successful strategies. | Gaskins (2009) |
| Summative assessment | “a cumulative assessment that occurs at the end of an instructional unit." Examples may include exams, quizzes, and projects. | Alber-Morgan et al. (2022, p. 164) |
| Targeted instruction | Instruction that “takes into account what students understand and teaches them according to their ability levels, rather than strictly adhering to what they are expected to know based on their grade level.” | Center for Education Innovations (n.d.) |
| Transition services |
Instruction, related services, and community experiences designed to support the student with a disability in developing academic and functional skills suited to the student’s postschool goals. Per federal regulations, this is a results-oriented process that considers including postsecondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation, as appropriate for the individual student’s needs and taking into consideration the child’s strengths, preferences, and interests. |
IDEA regulations, 34 C.F.R. § 300.43(a) |
| Universal design for learning (UDL) | ”A framework that facilitates the use of flexible options when designing instruction to promote student engagement, present content to learners, and allow students to demonstrate their learning. This framework enables educators to address learner variability and promote learner agency.” | The IRIS Center (2009, 2023, p. 1) |
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